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Social reformers Essay 1. Gautama Buddha, also known as SiddhÄ rtha Gautama, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. Buddha means awakened one or the enlightened one. Buddha is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha of our age. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and KoÅ›ala. The times of Gautamas birth and death are uncertain: most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE, but more recent opinion dates his death to between 486 and 483 BCE or, according to some, between 411 and 400 BCE. However, at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddhas death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all other historians. Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition, and first committed to writing about 400 years later. Primary biographical sources The primary sources for the life of SiddhÄ rtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara SÃ… «tra, MahÄ vastu, and the NidÄ nakathÄ . Of these, the Buddhacaritais the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet AÅ›vaghoá ¹ £a, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The Lalitavistara SÃ… «tra is the next oldest biography, a MahÄ yÄ na/SarvÄ stivÄ da biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The MahÄ vastu from the MahÄ sÄ Ã¡ ¹Æ'ghikaLokottaravÄ da tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniá ¹ £kramaá ¹â€¡a SÃ… «tra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the NidÄ nakathÄ  is from the TheravÄ da tradition in Sri Lanka, was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoá ¹ £a. From canonical sources, the JÄ takas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The JÄ takas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The MahÄ padÄ na Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautamas birth, such as the bodhisattvas descent from Tuá ¹ £ita Heaven into his mothers womb. Nature of traditional depictions Queen MÄ yÄ  miraculously giving birth to SiddhÄ rtha. Sanskritpalm leaf manuscript. NÄ landÄ , Bihar, India. PÄ la period Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the MahÄ vastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such in conformity with the world; omniscience, and the ability to suppress karma. Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of SiddhÄ rtha Gautamas life by omitting the traditional supernatural eleme nts of his early biographies. Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human: It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahÄ puruá ¹ £a, superman; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the MahÄ parinibbÄ na Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so. The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddhas time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[27][full citation needed] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that SiddhÄ rtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[28][dubious – discuss] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death must be true. Biography Conception and birth Purported birthplace of Gautama Buddha in Lumbini, a holy shrine also for Hindus, who believe Buddha is the 9th of 10 Dashavataras of Vishnu. Most scholars regard Kapilavastu, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.Other possibilities are Lumbini, present-day Nepal Kapileswara, Odisha, present-day India; and Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India. According to the most traditional biography, Buddha was born in a royal Hindu family to King Ã…Å¡uddhodana, the leader of Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddhas lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (MÄ yÄ devÄ «) and Suddhodanas wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her fathers kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree. The day of the Buddhas birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddhas birth anniversary holiday is called Buddha Poornima in India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddhas mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (PÄ li: Siddhattha), meaning he who achieves his aim. During the birth celebrations, the hermit seerAsita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asitas hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[32]Kaundinya (Pali: Kondaà ±Ãƒ ±a), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha While later tradition and legend characterized Ã…Å¡uddhodana as a hereditarymonarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Iká ¹ £vÄ ku (PÄ li: OkkÄ ka), many scholars think that Ã…Å¡uddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy. Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.At the time, many small city-states existed in Ancient India, called Janapadas. Republics and chiefdoms with diffused political power and limited social stratification, were not uncommon amongst them, and were referred to as gana-sanghas. The Buddhas community does not seem to have had a caste system. It was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism. Early life and marriage Departure of Prince Siddhartha Siddhartha was born in a royal Hindu family.[30] He was brought up by his mothers younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[38] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Ã…Å¡uddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering. When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named YaÅ›odharÄ  (PÄ li: YasodharÄ ). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named RÄ hula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not lifes ultimate goal.[38 ] Departure and ascetic life. The Great Departure of Siddhartha Gautama, surrounded by a halo, he is accompanied by numerous guards, maithuna loving couples, and devata who have come to pay homage; Gandhara, Kushan period Prince Siddhartha shaves his hair and becomes an ascetic. Borobudur, 8th century At the age of 29, the popular biography[which?] continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his fathers efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.[39] Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. Its said that, the horses hooves were muffled by the gods[40] to prevent guards from knowing of his departure. Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisaras men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment. He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation.[41][42][43] After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ä€rÄ Ã¡ ¸ a KÄ lÄ ma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practise, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka RÄ maputra).[44] With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.[45] Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the seasons plowing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhÄ na. Awakening See also: Enlightenment in Buddhism The Buddha surrounded by the demons of MÄ ra. Sanskritpalm leaf manuscript. NÄ landÄ , Bihar, India. PÄ la period According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 6] after realizing that meditative jhana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didnt work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 6]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.[web 6] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 7] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 7] Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[46] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[46][47] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or Awakened One (Buddha is also sometimes translated as The Enlightened One). According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the Four Noble Truths,[47] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described NirvÄ na as the perfect peace of a mind thats free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[47] or defilements (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the end of the world, in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha. According to a story in the Ä€yÄ cana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the PÄ li and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, BrahmÄ  Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach. Formation of the sangha Dhà ¢mek Stà »pa in Sà ¢rnà ¢th, India, site of the first teaching of the Buddha in which he taught the Four Noble Truths to his first five disciples After his awakening, the Buddha met two merchants, named Tapussa and Bhallika, who became his first lay disciples. They were apparently each given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died. He then travelled to the Deer Park near VÄ rÄ Ã¡ ¹â€¡asÄ « (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saá ¹â€¦gha: the company of Buddhist monks. All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000. Travels and teaching Buddha with his protector Vajrapani, GandhÄ ra, 2nd century CE, Ostasiatische Kunst Museum For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. From the outset, Buddhism was equally open to all races and classes, and had no caste structure, as was the rule for most Hindus in the-then society. Although the Buddhas language remains unknown, its likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization. The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the vassana rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them. The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddhas two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha. Upon hearing of his sons awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautamas (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message. Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying: Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms The Buddha is said to have replied: That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddhas cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant. Of the Buddhas disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna. In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant. The kings death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow. Assassination attempts According to colorful legends, even during the Buddhas life the sangha was not free of dissent and discord. For example, Devadatta, a cousin of Gautama who became a monk but not an arahant, more than once tried to kill him. Initially, Devadatta is alleged to have often tried to undermine the Buddha. In one instance, according to stories, Devadatta even asked the Buddha to stand aside and let him lead the sangha. When this failed, he is accused of having three times tried to kill his teacher. The first attempt is said to have involved him hiring a group of archers to shoot the awakened one. But, upon meeting the Buddha, they laid down their bows and instead became followers. A second attempt is said to have involved Devadatta rolling a boulder down a hill. But this hit another rock and splintered, only grazing the Buddhas foot. In the third attempt, Devadatta is said to have got an elephant drunk and set it loose. This ruse also failed. After his lack of success at homicide, Devadatta is said to have tried to create a schism in the sangha, by proposing extra restrictions on the vinaya. When the Buddha again prevailed, Devadatta started a breakaway order. At first, he managed to convert some of the bhikkhus, but Sariputta and Maudgalyayana are said to have expounded the dharma so effectively that they were won back. Mahaparinirvana The Buddhas entry into Parinirvana. Sanskritpalm leaf manuscript. NÄ landÄ , Bihar, India. PÄ la period The sharing of the relics of the Buddha, ZenyÃ… mitsu-Temple Museum, Tokyo According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ä€nanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.[web 8] Dr Mettanando and Von Hinà ¼ber argue that the Buddha died of mesentericinfarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning.[48][note 11] The precise contents of the Buddhas final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns. Ananda protested the Buddhas decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of KuÅ›inÄ ra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy: 44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds—the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of Eat, drink, and be merry! The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddhas final words are reported to have been: All composite things (Saá ¹â€¦khÄ ra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence (Pali: vayadhammÄ  saá ¹â€¦khÄ rÄ  appamÄ dena sampÄ dethÄ ). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or Dalada Maligawa in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present. According to the PÄ li historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the DÄ «pavaá ¹Æ'sa and MahÄ vaá ¹Æ'sa, the coronation of Emperor AÅ›oka (PÄ li: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (Ã¥  Ã¥â€¦ «Ã©Æ' ¨Ã¨ «â€" and éÆ' ¨Ã¥Å¸ ·Ã§â€¢ °Ã¨ «â€"), the coronation of Emperor AÅ›oka is 116 years after the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddhas passing is either 486 BCE according to TheravÄ da record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddhas death in TheravÄ da countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor AÅ›oka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddhas death is 13 May 544 BCE,[49] whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.[50] At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha. While in Buddhas days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, ShÄ kyamuni, ShÄ kyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, BhagavÄ /Bhagavat/BhagwÄ n, MahÄ vira,[51] Jina/Jinendra, SÄ str, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as TathÄ gata. Relics After his death, the Buddha was cremated and the ashes divided among his disciples. According to the PBS series Secrets of the Dead, an urn containing these was discovered in a stupa at Piprahwa near Birdpur [historical British variant as Birdpore], a Buddhist sacred structure in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh in India by amateur archaeologist William Claxton Peppe in 1898. They were given to the King of Siam (Thailand) a couple of years later, where they still reside. Physical characteristics Main article: Physical characteristics of the Buddha GandhÄ ran depiction of the Buddha from Hadda, Afghanistan; Victoria and Albert Museum, London An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have the 32 Signs of the Great Man. The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive.(D,I:115). It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotamas appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotamas senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant. (A,I:181) A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by Buddhas physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances. Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikayas Lakkhaá ¹â€¡a Sutta (D,I:142).[52] In addition, the Buddhas physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddhas first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, NarasÄ «ha GÄ thÄ  (The Lion of Men).[web 10] Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.[53] Nine virtues The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka.[54] Recollection of the nine virtues of the Buddha is a common Buddhist devotional practice, it is also one of the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid done the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge. Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened Reclining Buddha in Jade Temple, Shanghai Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pali Canon and the Ä€gamas contain the actual substance of the historical teachings (and possibly even the words) of the Buddha.[55][56] Some scholars believe the Pali Canon and the Agamas pre-date the MahÄ yÄ na sÃ… «tras.[57] The scriptural works of Early Buddhism precede the Mahayana works chronologically, and are treated by many Western scholars as the main credible source for information regarding the actual historical teachings of Gautama Buddha. However, some scholars do not think that the texts report on historical events.[58][dubious– discuss][59][60] Hajime Nakamura writes that there is nothing in the traditional Buddhist texts that can be clearly attributed to Gautama as a historical figure:[61] [I]n the Buddhist texts there is no word that can be traced with unquestionable authority to Gautama ÅšÄ kyamuni as a historical personage, although there must be some sayings or phrases derived from him. Some of the fundamentals of the teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha are: The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this; The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration; Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process; Rejection of the infallibility of accepted scripture: Teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experience and are praised by the wise. See the Kalama Sutta for details; Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things that come to be have an end; Dukkha (Sanskrit: duá ¸ ¥kha): That nothing which comes to be is ultimately satisfying; AnattÄ  (Sanskrit: anÄ tman): That nothing in the realm of experience can really be said to be I or mine; NibbÄ na (Sanskrit: NirvÄ na): It is possible for sentient beings to realize a dimension of awareness which is totally unconstructed and peaceful, and end all suffering due to the minds interaction with the conditioned world. However, in some Mahayana schools, these points have come to be regarded as more or less subsidiary. There is disagreement amongst various schools of Buddhism over more complex aspects of what the Buddha is believed to have taught, and also over some of the disciplinary rules for monks. According to tradition, the Buddha emphasized ethics and correct understanding. He questioned everyday notions of divinity and salvation. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the divine; distant gods are subjected to karma themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is only a guide and teacher for beings who must tread the path of NirvÄ Ã¡ ¹â€¡a (PÄ li: NibbÄ na) themselves to attain the spiritual awakening called bodhi and understand reality. The Buddhist system of insight and meditation practice is not claimed to have been divinely revealed, but to spring from an understanding of the true nature of the mind, which must be discovered by treading the path guided by the Buddhas teachings. Other religions Buddha depicted as the 9th Avatar of god Vishnu in a traditional Hindu representation Main article: Gautama Buddha in world religions In Hinduism, Gautama is regarded as one of the ten avatars of God Vishnu.[note 6] The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyyas[62][63][64] and a Manifestation of God in the Bahà ¡Ãƒ ­ faith.[65] Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.[66] The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the life of the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisatva via Arabic BÃ… «dhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph.[67] The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha.[68] Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August). 2. Annabhau Sathe Despite lack of formal education, Sathe wrote in Marathi 35 novels, one among which was Fakira (1959). Fakira, which is currently in its 19th edition, received a state government award in 1961. There are 15 collections of Sathes short stories. A large number of his short stories have been translated into many Indian and as many as 27 non-Indian languages. Besides novels and short stories, Sathe wrote a play, a travelogue on Russia, 12 screenplays, and 10 ballads powade(Marahti). Sathe wrote directly from his experiences in life, and his novels celebrate the fighting spirit in their characters who work against all odds in life. Early life Annabhau Sathe was born in the village of Wategaon near Sangli in a family belonging to the Dalit [[Mang [Hindu] (caste)|Mang]] community. (The community has been identified by the Indian government as a SCscheduled caste.) Poverty had prevented Sathe from obtaining formal education. His brother Shankarbhau recounts in his biography of Sathe, titled Majhe Bhau Annabhau, that the family members worked as laborers at the site of Kalyan tunnel when it was being constructed. Writings Lok Rajya, a Maharashtra state government fortnightly, published on 1 November 1993, a special commemorative issue concerning Sathe. The state government also issued in 1998 a collection of his works under the title Lokshahir Annabhau Sathe Nivadak Sahitya.Amartya shinde and Aditya Shinde,Nerul Navi Mumbai 706 also having good information regarding Annabhau Sathe and his relations with Famous Film Actor Balraj Sahani. Other achievements To generate social awareness, he organized stage performances of powade and tamasha, ethnic dances chiefly performed by women, which are popular in rural Maharashtra. He produced 14 tamasha shows. In the late 1940s, the then Home Minister of the Bombay state government Morarji Desai had banned tamasha shows, but Sathe courageously defied the ban by renaming them as lokanatya. People in Maharashtra conferred the epithet lok shahir on Sathe. On the issue of a postage stamp of Anna Bhau Sathe at Chembur, Mumbai minister Pramod Mahajan called Anna as a saint of Maharashtra. Sathe was an important mobilizer in the Samyukta Maharashtra movement. He used the medium of powade to great effect in that movement. Sathe was attracted to communism and had visited USSR. He was a founder member of the Lal Bawta Kalapathak of the Communist Party in Maharashtra. Sathe lived a life of destitution. After spending 22 years in a Ghatkopar (west), chirag nagar slum, Sathe moved to a modest house in Goregaon which the state government provided him in 1968, one year before he died. External links http://www.manase.org/maharashtra.php?mid=68smid=23pmid=8id=800 Authority control VIAF: 13245460 {{Persondata | NAME = Sathe, Annabhau | ALTERNATIVE NAMES = | SHORT DESCRIPTION = Indian writer | DATE OF BIRTH = August 1, 1920 | PLACE OF BIRTH = | DATE OF DEATH = July 18, 1969Tukaram alias Annabhau Sathe was born in the village of Wategaon near Sangli in a family belonging to the Dalit Matang community. on 1st August 1920 (The community has been identified by the Indian government as a scheduled caste.) There are 15 collections of Sathes short stories. A large number of his short stories have been translated into many Indian and as many as 27 non-Indian languages. Besides novels and short stories, Sathe wrote a play, a travelogue on Russia, 12 screenplays, and 10 ballads powade(Marahti). Sathe wrote directly from his experiences in life, and his novels celebrate the fighting spirit in their characters who work against all odds in life. Lok Rajya, a Maharashtra state government fortnightly, published on November 1, 1993, a special commemorative issue concerning Sathe. The state government also issued in 1998 a collection of his works under the title Lokshahir Annabhau Sathe Nivadak Sahitya. Other achievements Sathe worked among the poor. To generate social awareness, he organized stage performances of powade and tamasha, ethnic dances chiefly performed by women, which are popular in rural Maharashtra. He produced 14 tamashashows. In the late 1940s, the then Home Minister of the Bombay state government Morarji Desai had banned tamasha shows, but Sathe courageously defied the ban by renaming them as lokanatya. People in Maharashtra conferred the epithet lok shahir on Sathe. on the Occasion of Postage stamp of Anna Bhau Sathe at Chembur,Mumbai Honrable minister Mr.Pramod Mahajan, called Ann as A saint of Maharashtra. Sathe was an important mobilizer in the Samyukta Maharashtra movement. He used the medium of powade to great effect in that movement. on the same occasion he sung a Chakkad as Mazi Maina Gavavar Rahili Mazya Jiwachi hottiya Kahili-edited by Prof. Balaji Shinde and Amartya shinde,Nerul Navi Mumbai-706 Sathe was attracted to communism and had visited USSR. He was a founder member of the Lal Bawta Kalapathak of the Communist Party in Maharashtra. Also Annabhu sathe was the member of Matang Samaj Kaminty at Satara and Sagli Personal life Sathe lived a life of destitution. After spending 22 years in a Ghatkopar (west) chirag nagar slum, Sathe moved to a modest house in Goregaon which the state government provided him in 1968, one year before he died. Honors Many cultural organizations and roads in Maharashtra have been named after Sathe. Shahir Bapu Pawar (Solapur, Contact no 8805500620) have written song on Annabhau Sathes life release Adio cassettes CDs also Death-11th July 1969 | PLACE OF DEATH = }}

Essay --

Every job has its ups and downs, but it just happened to be that we, as human beings, tend to drag our work problems with us to our personal life. Knowing how to separate work from personal life is hard, especially in today’s society considering the technology we have today. This research made me aware of the stress and everyday interactions that probation officers endure and I must admit, is more stressful than I thought. I have always imagined a probation officer’s job much more facile not having such a huge caseload, but like they say, ignorance is bliss. In the following essay, I will be discussing the findings about the stress of a probation officer. This first study did not mention exactly how many officers were used in this study but it stated that 39 to 55 percent have experienced work related violence or threats. (ncjrs.gov). Most of the work related stress did not come from the offenders but from the agency itself. There are three major types of stress in the probation world, high caseloads, paper work and lastly but not least deadlines. And as many jobs have it, about 87 percent blame their supervisor for one of the causes of stress. They said the lack of advancement of the job, and recognizing well job done. (ncjrs.gov). As we can see already, each and one of these stress actors is tied to another. Now the question to ask is how these strong and willing full individual deal and cope with their stress. Some said they took extra sick days just for themselves and other by going to church, venting with family, friends or co workers and others by exercising. (ncjrs.gov) There has been some suggestion to create stress relief programs. Few of the reasons to create relief stress programs is so probation officer will call out s... ...alifying ones.( White, Gasperin, Nystrom, Ambrose, Esarey). Their reason was because of the salary of the job and format. They continue saying that one must be mature, tolerance, open minded, patience and self confidence. .( White, Gasperin, Nystrom, Ambrose, Esarey). This brings up a good point. Wanting to be a community correction officer must be a job one loves and have passion for it because the pay and burnouts that come along with it are not the greatest. One most really consider all the option, pros, and cons of the job before take it. Being a probation officer is like working in the back of a movie scene. Also that one must seen the offender beyond their offense. .( White, Gasperin, Nystrom, Ambrose, Esarey). Trying to see the offender by their offense takes a lot of humbleness. It’s hard to see pass someone who molested a child or murder and innocent child

The Da Vinci Code EPILOGUE

Robert Langdon awoke with a start. He had been dreaming. The bathrobe beside his bed bore the monogram HOTEL RITZ PARIS.He saw a dim light filtering through the blinds. Is it dusk ordawn? he wondered. Langdon's body felt warm and deeply contented. He had slept the better part of the last two days. Sitting up slowly in bed, he now realized what had awoken him†¦ the strangest thought. For day she had been trying to sort through a barrage of information, but now Langdon found himself fixed on something he'd not considered before. Could it be? He remained motionless a long moment. Getting out of bed, he walked to the marble shower. Stepping inside, he let the powerful jets message his shoulders. Still, the thought enthralled him. Impossible. Twenty minutes later, Langdon stepped out of the Hotel Ritz into Place Vendà ´me. Night was falling. The days of sleep had left him disoriented†¦ and yet his mind felt oddly lucid. He had promised himself he would stop in the hotel lobby for a cafe au lait to clear his thoughts, but instead his legs carried him directly out the front door into the gathering Paris night. Walking east on Rue des Petits Champs, Langdon felt a growing excitement. He turned south onto Rue Richelieu, where the air grew sweet with the scent of blossoming jasmine from the stately gardens of the Palais Royal. He continued south until he saw what he was looking for – the famous royal arcade – a glistening expanse of polished black marble. Moving onto it, Langdon scanned the surface beneath his feet. Within seconds, he found what he knew was there – several bronze medallions embedded in the ground in a perfectly straight line. Each disk was five inches in diameter and embossed with the letters N and S. Nord. Sud. He turned due south, letting his eye trace the extended line formed by the medallions. He began moving again, following the trail, watching the pavement as he walked. As he cut across the corner of the Comedie-Franà §aise, another bronze medallion passed beneath his feet. Yes! The streets of Paris, Langdon had learned years ago, were adorned with 135 of these bronze markers, embedded in sidewalks, courtyards, and streets, on a north-south axis across the city. He had once followed the line from Sacre-Coeur, north across the Seine, and finally to the ancient Paris Observatory. There he discovered the significance of the sacred path it traced. The earth's original prime meridian.The first zero longitude of the world.Paris's ancient Rose Line. Now, as Langdon hurried across Rue de Rivoli, he could feel his destination within reach. Less than a block away. The Holy Grail ‘neath ancient Roslin waits. The revelations were coming now in waves. Sauniere's ancient spelling of Roslin†¦ the blade and chalice†¦ the tomb adorned with masters' art. Is that why Sauniere needed to talk with me? Had I unknowingly guessed the truth? He broke into a jog, feeling the Rose Line beneath his feet, guiding him, pulling him toward his destination. As he entered the long tunnel of Passage Richelieu, the hairs on his neck began to bristle with anticipation. He knew that at the end of this tunnel stood the most mysterious of Parisian monuments – conceived and commissioned in the 1980s by the Sphinx himself, Fran;ois Mitterrand, a man rumored to move in secret circles, a man whose final legacy to Paris was a place Langdon had visited only days before. Another lifetime. With a final surge of energy, Langdon burst from the passageway into the familiar courtyard and came to a stop. Breathless, he raised his eyes, slowly, disbelieving, to the glistening structure in front of him. The Louvre Pyramid. Gleaming in the darkness. He admired it only a moment. He was more interested in what lay to his right. Turning, he felt his feet again tracing the invisible path of the ancient Rose Line, carrying him across the courtyard to the Carrousel du Louvre – the enormous circle of grass surrounded by a perimeter of neatly trimmed hedges – once the site of Paris's primeval nature-worshipping festivals†¦ joyous rites to celebrate fertility and the Goddess. Langdon felt as if he were crossing into another world as he stepped over the bushes to the grassy area within. This hallowed ground was now marked by one of the city's most unusual monuments. There in the center, plunging into the earth like a crystal chasm, gaped the giant inverted pyramid of glass that he had seen a few nights ago when he entered the Louvre's subterranean entresol. La Pyramide Inversee. Tremulous, Langdon walked to the edge and peered down into the Louvre's sprawling underground complex, aglow with amber light. His eye was trained not just on the massive inverted pyramid, but on what lay directly beneath it. There, on the floor of the chamber below, stood the tiniest of structures†¦ a structure Langdon had mentioned in his manuscript. Langdon felt himself awaken fully now to the thrill of unthinkable possibility. Raising his eyes again to the Louvre, he sensed the huge wings of the museum enveloping him†¦ hallways that burgeoned with the world's finest art. Da Vinci†¦ Botticelli†¦ Adorned in masters' loving art, She lies. Alive with wonder, he stared once again downward through the glass at the tiny structure below. I must go down there! Stepping out of the circle, he hurried across the courtyard back toward the towering pyramid entrance of the Louvre. The day's last visitors were trickling out of the museum. Pushing through the revolving door, Langdon descended the curved staircase into the pyramid. He could feel the air grow cooler. When he reached the bottom, he entered the long tunnel that stretched beneath the Louvre's courtyard, back toward La Pyramide Inversee. At the end of the tunnel, he emerged into a large chamber. Directly before him, hanging down from above, gleamed the inverted pyramid – a breathtaking V-shaped contour of glass. The Chalice. Langdon's eyes traced its narrowing form downward to its tip, suspended only six feet above the floor. There, directly beneath it, stood the tiny structure. A miniature pyramid. Only three feet tall. The only structure in this colossal complex that had been built on a small scale. Langdon's manuscript, while discussing the Louvre's elaborate collection of goddess art, had made passing note of this modest pyramid. â€Å"The miniature structure itself protrudes up through the flooras though it were the tip of an iceberg – the apex, of an enormous, pyramidical vault, submerged below like a hidden chamber.† Illuminated in the soft lights of the deserted entresol, the two pyramids pointed at one another, their bodies perfectly aligned, their tips almost touching. The Chalice above. The Blade below. The blade and chalice guarding o'er Her gates. Langdon heard Marie Chauvel's words. One day it will dawn on you. He was standing beneath the ancient Rose Line, surrounded by the work of masters. What better place for Sauniere to keep watch? Now at last, he sensed he understood the true meaning of the Grand Master's verse. Raising his eyes to heaven, he gazed upward through the glass to a glorious, star-filled night. She rests at last beneath the starry skies. Like the murmurs of spirits in the darkness, forgotten words echoed. The quest for the Holy Grail is the quest to kneel before the bones of Mary Magdalene. A journey to pray at the feet of the outcast one. With a sudden upwelling of reverence, Robert Langdon fell to his knees. For a moment, he thought he heard a woman's voice†¦ the wisdom of the ages†¦ whispering up from the chasms of the earth.

Mid Summer Nights Dream - 1562 Words

Option #1 Battle of the Sexes ENG/304 Professor Salachi 12/25/13 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY: I certify that the attached paper, which was produced for the class identified above, is my original work and has not previously been submitted by me or by anyone else for any class. I further declare that I have cited all sources from which I used language, ideas and information, whether quoted verbatim or paraphrased, and that any and all assistance of any kind which I received while producing this paper, has been acknowledged in the References section. This paper includes no trademarked material, logos, or images from the Internet which I do not have written permission to include. I further agree that my name typed on the†¦show more content†¦No, no; I am as ugly as a bear;† (Riverside Shakespeare, 1997, pg. 264 line 90-95). The jealousy displayed by the fairy couple is slightly different from that of Helena and Demetrius. Oberon displays jealousy toward Titania because she is in control of the changeling and will not allow Oberon to make him his henchmen. Oberon displays this jealousy through frustration and anger that he cannot get what he wants. â€Å" Well; go thy way. Thou shalt not from this grove. Till I torment thee for this injury† (Riverside Shakespeare, 1997, pg.261 lines 67-70). Oberon is not the only one either; Titania displays jealousy and anger toward Oberon for not being faithful to her â€Å"Why art thou here? Come from the farthest steep in India but that, forsooth, the bouncing amazon, Your buskin’d mistress, and your warrior love† (Riverside Shakespeare, 1997, pg.261 line 67-70). Titania is jealous at the other women in Oberons life and angry with Oberon for not being faithful and disregards any of his requests as a way of getting back at him. Shakespeare can work these themes into his play through the main characters ever so beautifully and touch on many areas of love. Shakespeare does in fact bring in a few paradoxical qualities of love into his plays and seems to add moral value to this play by doing so. Through the characters in the play, Shakespeare can instill these moral values and touch on them throughout the play. Shakespeare discusses how love is blind toShow MoreRelated Mid Summer nights Dream Essays1043 Words   |  5 PagesEgeus is a father that only wants best for his daughter Hermia. Hermia is in love with a man named Lysander, and the man her father wants her to marry is Demetrius. Lysander thinks up of an idea and tells Hermia to sneak out into the woods the next night so that they may get married at his aunt’s house just outside of Athens. Helena, Hermia best friend loves Demetrius, but realizes he only has eyes for Hermia. Helena tells Demetrius about Lysanders plan hoping that he will love Helena. So the conflictRead MoreContrasting Places in a Mid Summer Nights Dream Essay1409 Words   |  6 PagesVs. 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